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Sie haben keine Artikel im Warenkorb. Es ist ein Horrorfilm ohne Jugendfreigabe, also warum zur Hölle werden da Szenen entfernt?As far as my own experience goes, my duties as member of the jury at the Paris Conservatoire contests and at the Brussels Concours International provided me with invaluable object lessons in the field of critical listening.
On an active practitioner such lessons are wasted, of course, whereas for a critic…. Szigeti, , p , ellipses in original.
However, the translation can be made to the evaluator, as critics must also deconstruct the salient aspects of the performance e. With this in mind, Szigeti makes several salient points in the quotation.
First, he addresses the challenge of making consistent and reliable comparisons between performances separated by time or between interpretations.
The research literature has emphasized this difficulty, most notably in studies demonstrating how experienced listeners can often mistake the same performance played twice as two distinct interpretations Duerksen, ; Anglada-Tort and Müllensiefen, Second, Szigeti struggles to identify a programme by which one could develop this skill, suggesting experience through exposure and a hypothetical course of advanced study, although seemingly unaware of whether such a programme or degree exists.
Even if he is speaking of the specific skill of published performance criticism, a course on performance evaluation would seem to be a clear analog.
He confirms this view in his third point, where he highlights his role as jury member for a number of internationally prominent panels as his own lessons in criticism.
Thus, he learned to assess by undertaking the assessment of others, in the process contributing to decisions having considerable ramifications for those assessed without any specific education in how to conduct them.
This quotation by a prominent musician from the relatively recent history of the Western classical tradition highlights the degree to which the skill of evaluation has been given far less attention than the skill of performance.
It suggests that those in positions of evaluative power are chosen not for their ability as judges, but for their prominence in a related domain.
Such a view would be in line with the history of skill assessment. Centuries earlier, the apprenticeship model of developing skilled crafts once favored social class in determining who held the power to assess and determine worth, a trend that shifted in 19th century Europe with the rise of competitive assessment, individualism, and a gradual and unfinished transition from a hierarchy based on class structure to one of meritocracy Eggleston, It is notable, therefore, that the method of training modern musicians, at least those in the Western classical tradition, remains based largely upon the master-apprentice model Gaunt, Conservatoires heavily favor the training of performance skills Perkins, , while the skill of performing effective evaluations receives far less attention.
This is despite the fact that the ability to dissect and deliver useful feedback upon performance is central to the career of the modern portfolio musician, who is likely to have multiple roles as performer, assessor, and teacher Bennett, A few exceptions to this can be found.
The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music ABRSM , for instance, requires training, professional development, and monitoring for its examiners through a 3-day introductory course and subsequent 4 days of sessions that emphasize learning through the conducting of mock or true evaluations under the guidance of those more experienced evaluators Stewart, Examiners are also periodically moderated, during which a second examiner remains in the room for the full session.
Such practices have also been piloted and employed in higher education settings, examples of which are discussed later, although the practice is not widespread.
The practice and skill of evaluation delivery has been given greater attention, at least in terms of research and discussion, in the domain of classroom-based and higher-education teaching.
Goolsby defined four functions of assessment; 1 placement, in which performances are ranked or chosen; 2 summative, in which a performance evaluation is used to summarize ability or a period of learning; 3 diagnostic, used to pinpoint learning and technical deficiencies; and 4 formative, to determine whether development has taken place and to foster continued learning.
Research and practice in evaluation in the wider educational context has focused on the third and fourth categories in their role in enhancing student learning and development.
Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick identified seven principles of good practice in the delivery of formative assessment.
They encouraged feedback that:. This can foster practice that is considered and deliberate, features critical to achieving peak performance outcomes Ericsson et al.
Paris and Winograd proposed that regular self-assessment of learning processes and outcomes promotes more effective monitoring of progress, facilitates the identification and correction of mistakes, and enhances feelings of self-efficacy, which is the belief in one's ability to perform domain-specific skills Bandura, ; McCormick and McPherson, ; McPherson and McCormick, ; Ritchie and Williamon, and has been linked to improvements in practice Ritchie and Williamon, Reciprocally, increased self-efficacy has been found to lead to higher self-evaluations, which themselves become increasingly underconfident as performance ability increases Hewitt, In general, self-assessments are found to be higher than those of third-party experts Hewitt, , Such optimism in self-assessment has been linked to higher performance achievement and persistence in comparison with students displaying more realistic or pessimistic tendencies Bonneville-Roussy et al.
Effective feedback, especially feedback that motivates and facilitates self-assessment, allows learners to close the cycle of self-regulated learning and enhance their performance practice most effectively.
If this practice is performing the skill of assessment, then one must learn to self-assess one's ability to assess. This ability to self-regulate feedback delivery forms a subset of what Medland defines as assessment literacy.
In a study of external examiners in UK higher education she found deficits across six categories: 1 community , or degree to which examiners had knowledge of and participated in groups sharing good practice; 2 standards , or the knowledge of and adherence to institutional and national policies; 3 dialogue , or the role and methods of engaging with students in their feedback and fostering peer-to-peer dialogue; 4 self-regulation , or the ability to demine and improve the quality of their own feedback; 5 programme-wide approach , or knowledge of and integration with the wider institutional and learning context for the material being taught and assessed, and 6 knowledge and understanding , or familiarity with the underlying pedagogical and psychological principles of effective assessment.
Medland found a significant emphasis on standards , especially relating to the consistency, transparency, and appropriateness of the assessment policies in place.
Such focus on procedure and policy invokes the danger of what Ferm Almqvist et al. Emphasizing this, Medland found the category of self-regulation to be the least-mentioned component in her cohort.
Responses relating to dialogue also highlighted an emphasis on one-directional feedback delivery rather than constructive and formative interaction between instructor and student or, indeed, between external examiners, programme leaders, and lecturers.
The importance of the methods of feedback delivery should not be overlooked. Not only do they provide new opportunities for formative learning, but the assessor's style and language can have a greater effect on the students' perceived value of the criticism and resulting self-confidence than the pedagogical content itself Bonshor, While performance evaluation can be conceptualized as a unique skill to be developed, there is value in considering it as an act of performance in itself.
Like the musical performance it seeks to quantify, it calls upon specialist knowledge. It can take place in front of an audience as in public competitions , one that can be critical of the outcome.
The results of the act have consequences, not only for those being assessed, but for the evaluative performer in its effects on their reputation, standing, and employability as an evaluator.
And, it is a process that unfolds in a fixed sequence over a fixed amount of time, often limiting or outright preventing opportunity for pause, repeat, or reflection, and including distinct periods of pre- and post-performance activities.
To examine evaluation through the lens of performance allows us to consider its treatment anew. Evaluation is not just a tool to summarize, diagnose, and develop performance; it is an act whose quality and efficacy can itself be summarized, diagnosed, and developed through the same means.
Taking this view, the skills involved in executing a skillful evaluation now become a form of meta-assessment; how does one deliver formative assessment of a formative assessment?
If considering evaluation as a performance, one can apply the seven principles of evaluation listed above Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick, not just to the assessment of performance, but to the assessment of assessment itself.
When reframed in this manner, good formative evaluation:. With the role of self-regulated learning again at the core of this philosophy, the opportunity to execute the skill to be practiced and improved becomes key.
This focus is emphasized in the theory of experiential learning , which posits that learning is most effective when students create knowledge through a process of engagement, interaction, and conflict with a rich and holistic experiences Kolb and Kolb, If one is to take these two perspectives together—i.
The classic form of simulated performance training in music is the dress rehearsal, in which a performance is conducted with every component in place save the audience themselves, thus allowing the performers and in the case of larger productions, the off-stage support to ensure that the extra-musical aspects of performance are in place.
While this can include testing the practical components of performance—timings, clothing choices, the functionality of electronic or mechanical elements—the performers themselves also have the opportunity to check the technical, physical, and psychological aspects of their craft.
Crucially, the dress rehearsal offers the possibility of dealing with the heightened physiological arousal inherent to performance, and its potential to have a maladaptive influence on outcomes should performers interpret this arousal as the manifestation of performance anxiety Kenny, ; Nieuwenhuys and Oudejans, ; Endo et al.
This applies not only to the on-stage experience, but also to the period of time spent backstage prior to the performance where performance-related physiological arousal has been found to be at its highest Williamon et al.
Research has also suggested that the act of video-recording these sessions can also induce anxiety in student performers, again providing an opportunity to simulate the stress of a true performance Daniel, Assessment has been used as a form of experiential learning in educational settings.
Indeed, the act of providing self- and peer-assessments as a part of the learning process has seen increased use across higher education, with one meta-analysis demonstrating a trend of strong correlations between peer- and faculty evaluations so long as global criteria are being used Falchikov and Goldfinch, In the musical domain, pedagogy classes will investigate theories of teaching and modes of feedback delivery.
These may include mock lessons conducted within the classroom or recorded for review by the instructor, which requires sourcing willing students for such experimental teaching.
A traditional approach can be also found in the masterclass or studio class, in which the expert musician works with one or more musicians in front of an audience i.
This basic template can be adjusted to accommodate multiple experts, students taught by their own or other teachers, or, crucially, opportunities for students to critique each other's performance in a controlled setting Long et al.
Whether a masterclass or studio class provides specific opportunity to examine the quality of feedback delivery depends largely on the focus and time mandated by the teacher.
Otherwise the act of providing an evaluation serves more to enhance reflecting on the performative skill, rather than the evaluative. Studies examining the act of conducting peer- and self-assessments of video-recorded performances highlight performance-focused feedback e.
Daniel examined video-assisted self-assessment with 35 undergraduate music students at an Australian university, finding in a preliminary questionnaire that fewer than half of the students reviewed audio or video recordings of their own performance with any kind of regularity.
Several studies have examined the act of having students conduct peer-to-peer feedback as part of their training, often examining live pilot programs.
Hunter and Russ worked with an Irish university to develop and monitor a seminar on peer assessment over several years. Students received training in the university's assessment procedures and assembled into panels of students with a variety of instrumental experience, a self-elected leader, and a supporting member of staff who had provided the initial procedural training.
In post-evaluation discussions among the students, several extra-performance biases and complications were explicitly raised that have been revealed through subsequent research, including recognition that it was socially and emotionally difficult to provide a low mark despite a weak performance, that assessors playing the same instrument as the performer were harsher in their criticism than those without the specific expertise, that marks assigned often reflected pre-existing expectations of a particular performer i.
Searby and Ewers examined the use of a peer assessment scheme within courses across a UK university's music programme, starting with an initial pilot in composition and expanding to areas including music performance, business, technology, and theory.
The process for peer-assessing musical performance was conducted with performances of a different year group rather than previously documented work.
With each subsequent year the groups negotiated a new set of evaluative criteria, which follow-on discussion with the students showed to be a critical component of their taking ownership of the evaluative process and thinking critically about creating their own work to be assessed.
This feedback on the process also revealed that students were happy with receiving peer feedback and felt that it was a valuable learning tool.
Despite hopes that peer-assessment would reduce the evaluative workload of the faculty members, operating the programme did not lead to a significant reduction in their efforts.
Following two studies demonstrating students' inconsistency in their self-and peer-assessment abilities compared with faculty-generated scores Bergee, , , Bergee and Cecconi-Roberts assembled experimental groups of three to five undergraduate music majors to perform for one another in four video-recorded sessions, after which they reviewed and discussed the performance footage while completing self- and peer-assessments using fixed rubrics.
After self-evaluating recordings of their final jury recitals, these were compared with the evaluations by the jury examiners. No significant difference in ability to self-evaluate was shown based on year or performance level, and correlations between self- and faculty assessments were modestly higher among the experimental group compared with a control group who had not completed the peer assessment discussion sessions.
However, a great deal of variability remained in the scores, especially in ratings of tone and interpretation.
A follow-up experiment that included greater discussion of the evaluative criteria and their application to two sample scores also showed moderate to no effect of the treatment on alignment of self- and peer-assessments with faculty assessments, with the authors suggesting that the interventions had not fully engaged with the social and environmental complexities of performance self-assessment.
Daniel had 36 students who were involved in weekly performance seminars provide feedback on fellow student performances in the form of short evaluative comments and as detailed grades using a segmented scheme.
Reflective questionnaires showed that students preferred the structured approach and that those too reserved in their critical judgments tended to improve over the course of the sessions.
In Blom and Poole's research, 16 third-year music students were asked to evaluate second-year performances in an Australian university.
Having completed self-assessment tasks in their first year and paired peer-assessment critiques in their second, they were tasked with grading recorded performances of their second-year peers using the same criteria employed by staff, providing written critiques to be read by the performers, assigning grades, and providing a self-reflective commentary on the process.
As Hunter and Russ demonstrated, the students found the exercise to be helpful in not only developing their abilities and confidence in assessment but also how they might adjust their performance for assessment.
This included a structured method of peer evaluation in which recordings were shared and written commentary posted on a course website, amounting to over , words of feedback on recorded tracks in one semester.
Course conveners monitored whether the feedback conformed to good standards of constructive criticism, highlighting instances of overly authoritative tone or lack of appropriate detail, although specific instruction or focus on effective feedback production was not provided.
Latukefu examined a scaffolded peer-assessment framework among undergraduate vocal students at an Australian university. Adapting the model set by Searby and Ewers , student focus groups established the assessment criteria and processes before the programme was implemented across a cohort.
Following dissemination and discussion of the criteria to a class on contemporary performance practice, panels of three students performed peer evaluations.
An open-ended survey found that students recognized the benefits of peer evaluation in improving their abilities to reflect upon their own performances, as well as developing skills important to their future work as evaluators.
They highlighted the difficulties in conducting these evaluations with peers and friends, citing awkwardness and social influences preventing objective discussions of performance and assessment.
Several approaches were employed, each a variation on a teacher-supervised studio class in which students engaged in discussion of performance and feedback.
One approach employed Lerman and Borstel's Critical Response Process, which comprises an initial discussion of what components of the performance are meaningful, the performer asking questions on which they would like feedback, the evaluators asking neutral questions of the performer, and finally the evaluators asking permission to give opinions on specific aspects of the performance, only delivering those opinions if asked.
This study found that, in the most effective uses of the method, the fourth stage became redundant as the performer had already reached the relevant conclusions through the dialogue.
Hanken also highlighted the role that peer learning can play in continuing professional development of music teachers through seminars and discussion, combatting the isolation that can be inherent to music instruction through the nature of working practices.
More recently, Mitchell and Benedict employed peer-to-peer examination as a teaching tool during auditions at an Australian university. The student judges felt more confident when rating performances in audio-only conditions and were prompted to reflect on the role of their appearance and stage presence in their own performances.
Finally, Dotger et al. Trainees had not been given prior instruction in how to navigate the interaction, thus their responses were highly variable.
Several were able effectively to incorporate a combination of personal experience, acknowledgment of the parents' concerns, and specific advice for further development into their conversations.
In reviewing these approaches, several similarities can be seen. Each embraced experiential learning, not only giving students the ability to take part in the act of evaluation but in several cases also taking control over the terms and goals of the process.
Those that captured outcomes found positive responses from the students and educators. However, simply providing learners the opportunity to evaluate others is not so simple a proposition, with several of the studies highlighting the workload costs of administering such training and acknowledging that many still felt unprepared to face the pressures of genuine evaluation situations.
It is here that the gap is highlighted between artificially constructed assessments among familiar peers and settings and the heightened competitions, auditions, exams, and masterclasses in which the students will be called upon to make impactful decisions.
Alternatively, allowing learners or researchers access to true evaluative situations robs them of control of the situation and risks affecting the outcomes of those to be evaluated, especially if the evaluators in question are novices.
What is needed, therefore, is a way to recreate the complexity of a true or mock evaluation while maintaining control over the stimulus and setting to be evaluated.
In the mock-parent study by Dotger et al. An existing approach embracing the concept of simulation can be found in the use of Immersive Virtual Environments IVEs.
IVEs comprising some combination of projected visuals, aural and acoustic simulation, interactive physical environments, and closed narrative loops have now seen decades of use in both medical and social psychological settings Blascovich et al.
The simulation of performance as a training tool has seen considerable use in non-musical domains, including the development of pilots Hamman, , athletes Miles et al.
A particularly fruitful domain has been that of medicine, where shrinking opportunities to gain experience with patients in consultation and surgery, the unending and exponential growth of clinical techniques to be learned, and increased pressure to reduce the amount of practicing skills on patients is driving a shift to learning through simulation Kneebone et al.
While their efficacy was initially contested Blascovich et al. Furthermore, their ability to simulate risk while providing the operator with complete control over the environment has demonstrated their efficacy as a therapeutic tool to combat, for example, posttraumatic stress Difede et al.
In Kneebone et al. This approach emphasizes recreating the function, rather than the structure, of the true environment, with particular focus on the aural and visual stimuli peripheral to the central task and has been found to be an effective and adaptive form of training Kassab et al.
The affordable and portable nature of this approach, in particular, lends itself to the musical domain, where space and funds are regularly in short supply in music education institutions.
Several approaches to simulated performance training through IVEs have been employed in music research. Orman , used a head-mounted display in which she simulated an empty practice space and seated audience of familiar peers, faculty members, or the head of bands performing an audition.
Tests with eight saxophonists showed some evidence of increased heart rate in several participants, although results were inconclusive due to lack of correspondence with physiological scales and lack of experimental control.
Bissonnette et al. When state anxiety scores were taken following public performances before and after these sessions, participants with high trait and initial state anxiety showed a reduction in state anxiety across the two performances significantly greater than those of a control group who had not experienced the virtual environment.
Significant increases in third-party-assessed performance quality were also noted in the experimental group. Further study tracked changes in reported anxiety within each of the six 1-h sessions, finding a decrease in anxiety provoked by the simulation in subsequent sessions so long as similar musical material was being presented Bissonnette et al.
A different immersive approach to the simulation of musical performance can be seen in the development and operation of Williamon et al.
The platform recreates an intimate concert recital with 24 audience members or an audition for a panel of three expert judges. To create the audience, 11 participants were filmed via green-screen performing typical random movements of concert viewing, as well as providing specific responses e.
Accompanying audio was recorded separately. This footage was then compiled into a digitally constructed representation of a concert space, which was itself embedded into a software programme that allows the operator to trigger the various reactions, in addition to cuing coughs and mobile phone rings intended to test the performer's concentration.
For the audition simulation, three professional actors were recorded while seated at a table recreating the effect of an audition panel.
Following a neutral greeting to the performer, they can be activated to provide an overtly positive, neutral, or negative mode in their passive listening, conveyed through eye contact, facial expression, and body language, and in a triggered final response.
Following Kneebone et al. In addition to the stage lights as used in previous simulations Bissonnette et al. A backstage area was also recreated including dimmed lighting, music stands, seating, audio bleed from the stage comprising indecipherable chatter for the audition panel and the sound of an audience taking their seats for the concert setting, the latter of which was also featured backstage on CCTV footage of a comparable performance space and audience.
Crucially, this actor interacted with the performer as though the event were a genuine performance, and the performers themselves were expected to come wearing concert dress and to allow themselves to be caught up in the experience.
Examination of electrocardiographic and self-reported state anxiety data among seven violinists demonstrated that the simulation provoked stress and anxiety responses comparable to a live audition, and further qualitative research found that students perceived the simulation to be an effective tool to provoke and train for performance anxiety Aufegger et al.
This work was followed by Glowinski et al. Using this, the researchers were able to demonstrate through motion tracking how four violinists' performance movements were altered, although not consistently, under different audience conditions.
Based upon these existing simulation approaches, this article presents the novel conceptualization and development of a prototype tool to apply the concepts of Virtual Immersive Environments and distributed simulation to the practice and study of music performance evaluation.
There is a clear need for further approaches to study the act of live performance evaluation in a controlled environment and to improve and expand the delivery of assessment training.
Musicians require access to skilled evaluators to provide feedback on their own performance and to develop skills as assessors to prepare for portfolio careers and enhance their self-evaluative abilities.
Teachers and educational institutions have a duty to ensure they are preparing their students for careers that include teaching and assessing and to ensure that the evaluations they provide of their students are fair and robust.
And researchers require new means to investigate and control experimentally the myriad social and environmental factors that influence the act of decision-making.
While numerous approaches have been described that apply the tenets of experiential learning and simulation through mock experience, none have embraced the possibilities of IVEs or distributed simulation in recreating the surrounding and intensifying stimuli of the true evaluative experience.
It is these features that music performance simulations have sought to replicate. A genuine performance evaluation, as discussed above, can come with the same pressure of performance.
Increased arousal can limit the ability to attend to and process information Hanoch and Vitouch, , which is also central to the act of performance assessment.
Thus, the goal of the present work was to develop an immersive simulation that stimulated the heightened pressure of performing an evaluation, to allow for immersive and experiential training while providing a controlled setting to facilitate experimental research.
To address these goals, the Evaluation Simulator was developed as a prototype to allow for the recreation of the following scenarios in training and research:.
A primary question in developing the simulation was in the fundamental mode of stimulus presentation—that is, how the performance would be immersively visualized.
The music performance simulation literature presented three existing approaches: 1 a head-mounted virtual display Orman, , , 2 a projected visualization of 3D rendered avatars Bissonnette et al.
A system employing a large display or screen and projector typical to education settings was thus determined to be the most appropriate for the intended use cases.
With regard to artificially-rendered avatars, they provide several advantages: 1 they allow for complete control over audience behavior, reactions, and appearance, theoretically providing infinite variety in audience conditions; 2 they provide the opportunity to generate audiences that are dynamically reactive to the performer, altering their behavior as a true audience might in response to the quality and expressiveness of the performer [a stated objective of Glowinski et al's research]; and 3 they theoretically allow for seamless transitions between presentation modes e.
However, such an approach comes with drawbacks. This has particular salience in music performance evaluation considering the highly influential role of the performer's behavior and appearance in performance evaluation Platz and Kopiez, The use of pre-recorded video loops eliminates this problem and allows for photorealistic performers.
With a carefully controlled protocol and instructions, it offers the possibility of convincing users that they are interacting with a genuine audience or auditioner via a videoconferencing system.
Considering the limitations of these technologies and of existing practice described throughout this article, 10 qualities were determined as crucial in development of the Evaluation Simulator.
These were as follows and are summarized in Table 1 :. Experimentally replicable: Replicability was the primary goal of the simulator, i. This would not be possible in mock or true performances, and while assessing lone recordings allows for replicability of the evaluative experience, an IVE is necessary to immerse the judge in a stimulating environment.
Immersive: The experience must be free from extraneous distraction and provide a full sensory experience of the evaluation.
Mock evaluations offer potential here, if a suitable environment is created, although IVEs specifically tailor this experience.
Heightened arousal: The immersion should seek to increase the arousal experienced in completing the evaluation, mirroring the risk of the true situation.
Again, mock evaluations have the potential to recreate this, although examples in the literature are lacking.
A simulation should recreate this tension while avoiding the need to influence actual assessment procedures. Photorealistic: Due to the importance of visual performance features, looped recorded video within an IVE would be ideal as used in Williamon et al.
Allows solo and group evaluation: The simulator should allow a panel of evaluators to interact in a genuine physical environment. This is a particular challenge for VR applications, which naturally isolate the user within the head-mounted display.
Inexpensive to create: To determine an approach that could be widely adapted following the goals of distributed simulation, the complex computing expertise and equipment required to generate immersive VR or computer-generated avatars precluded their use in this simulator.
Inexpensive to operate: The equipment required for the employment of VR simulation is not readily available in most music learning environments.
Adaptable: True performances are restricted by nature. Mock evaluations and simulations rendered in real time offer infinite adaptability.
While video simulations are more restrictive in their adaptability, multiple scenarios could be filmed in advance and combined to allow an exponential number of possible use cases in combination with variations in the environment.
Portable: The experience must be operable in a wide variety of physical locations, with minimal effort and cost required in transporting it.
Table 1. The qualities of traditional and immersive virtual environments IVEs in the training of evaluative skills and in research.
Table 1 summarizes these points and the degree to which traditional evaluative environments used in research and teaching assessing recorded videos, mock evaluations, and true evaluations and the options for IVEs described earlier VR displays, 3D rendered displays, and looped video displays meet the demands.
As a result of this summary, it was determined that Williamon et al. To achieve this, performance footage would need to be recorded, combined in an interactive software framework, and presented within an artificially created physical and social environment.
This process is outlined below. The stage setting was designed to be ambiguous in the size of the space in which the performer was appearing, allowing the simulation to be physically displayed in a variety of settings without creating visual conflict.
To achieve this, the video was shot against a black-curtained backdrop without side walls or ceiling visible, leaving the size of the space ambiguous.
A carpeted floor was also chosen to maximize transferability to alternate spaces, as this could be interpreted as a rug placed over the local flooring.
A long shot was used, maximizing the size of the performer in the shot while ensuring his entire body remained in frame at all times.
This served several purposes: 1 guaranteeing the whole body could be seen without cut-off to give the strongest impression of a performer in the room with the evaluator; 2 allowing the assessor to judge the full range of body movement; 3 maximizing the size of the instrument and hands to facilitate instrument-specific technical assessment; 4 maximizing the size of the performer's face to facilitate social cues; 5 allowing the performer to be projected as close to life-size as possible on a standard, stand-mounted projector screen to facilitate the simulation; and 6 minimizing the perceived distance from the performer to allow for a more socially intense setting.
The performer was asked to wear semi-formal clothing appropriate for a high-level orchestral audition see Figure 1. Figure 1. Framing of the performer in the recorded video.
The size of the performer in the scene was maximized to enhance the effect of the simulation. The performer, a semi-professional oboist, was asked to prepare two excerpts of standard orchestral repertoire typical of a professional audition.
The excerpts were chosen to vary in tempo and style: a relatively fast work emphasizing articulation, ornamentation, and rhythmic drive, and a relatively slow work to demonstrate melodic phrasing and breath control.
Figure 2. Musical excerpts recorded for the simulation. The beginning of each of the four recorded performances opened with the empty stage, followed by the performer walking in and standing on a mark facing the camera.
The same activity was recorded ahead of each of the four performances. Following the performance, the oboist was asked to face back toward the panel to receive feedback.
At this point, three modes of feedback reception were filmed, chosen by the authors to represent a variety though not an exhaustive list of potential positive and negative performer reactions: 1 confident , in which the oboist was instructed to appear resolute and stoic, ready to receive positive or negative feedback in stride with direct eye contact and occasional nods of understanding; 2 frustrated , in which he was asked to appear disappointed in his performance and to not give the panel his full attention, avoiding eye contact and punctuating his reaction with subtle eye rolls, sighs, and grimaces; and 3 distraught , in which he was told to appear in a poor emotional state following the performance, looking at the floor and giving the impression of holding back tears with the expectation that poor or harsh feedback would be given see Figure 3.
Each feedback scenario was recorded for 60 s, with the performer instructed not to change standing position and minimize torso movement to allow the segment to be looped described further below.
Figure 3. Screenshots of the performer's three reaction modes. A confident. B frustrated. C distraught. These reactions can also be seen in Supplementary Videos 1 — 4.
A summary of the seven pieces of video footage collected can be found in Table 2 , and examples of the video files themselves can be downloaded as Supplementary Videos 1 — 4 2 , which show the performances and uncut performer reactions that would be looped or cut short in the final simulation experience, depending on the simulated scenario.
Screenshots of the three performance reactions confident, frustrated , and distraught are shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 outlines the interaction mapping of an Adobe Flash-based software interface developed to manipulate the videos using keyboard commands.
Upon opening the program and setting to full-screen view , the software holds a still image of the empty stage. By pressing keys 1—4 the operator triggers one of the four recorded performances i.
Tchaikovsky; good vs. Figure 4. Process mapping of the software interface. Following a hold of the empty stage shot, pressing keys 1—4 triggers the stage entrance and respective performance.
Once the looped feedback reaction is no longer needed which can be quickly skipped in scenarios in which no immediate verbal feedback is provided , the space bar triggers the stage exit and returns the software to the original stage, ready for another evaluation.
The interface can also be operated using a standard USB presentation remote. This can also be used to end any of the reaction loops if they had been triggered by the computer keyboard.
While the recorded video and software interface provides the core simulator experience, it is augmented by features of the physical environment in which it was designed and into which it can be set up.
The configuration used here mirrors that of Williamon et al. The projection screen or large monitor is placed against a wall and flanked by heavy curtains, giving the impression of a stage space extending beyond the physical room.
Where possible, the screen is large enough to display the performer at a scale and placed at floor level to give the impression of the performer standing in the room; where the screen must be raised, the gap at the bottom can be blocked to give the impression that the performer is standing on a raised platform or stage.
The curtains and screen are topped by remote-operated stage lights, directed back at the panel to heighten the feeling of attention and pressure on the decision-making process.
The room is best left darkened to maximize the effect of both lights and projection. High-quality speakers are placed as close to the projection as possible to give the impression of the performance emanating directly from the virtual performer.
A table and chairs for the panelists are placed at the center of the room, to which props can be added that are common to a judging experience e.
Figure 5. Two evaluators delivering performance feedback in the Evaluation Simulator. Stage lights illuminate a user and a facilitator in the environment, delivering feedback to the performer in the confident feedback mode.
A crucial component of the simulation is the human operator and the supporting theater he or she provides; the operator must treat the situation as a genuine performance and not allude to the artificial nature of the environment, emphasizing the role of simulation over role-play Dotger et al.
The details of the operator's role can alter based on the specific setting, but generally comprises a welcome and introduction, briefing on evaluation protocols, orally calling in the mock performer with accompanying triggering of the stage entrance sequence and desired performance sequence , triggering the desired reaction sequenced if not the default, triggering the stage exit at the appropriate point this may be immediately following the performance and before any performer reaction should the simulation situation not include verbal feedback from the panel , and providing the closing and debriefing of the user.
The simulator was piloted at the Cheltenham Music Festival, where it was set up as part of a public engagement event to allow festivalgoers to experience the heightened effect of performing as a competition judge akin to those popularized by the Idol, X Factor , and … 's Got Talent series.
This also provided an opportunity to test the simulator's functionality as a piece of distributed simulation in whether it could be set up quickly in a space not designed for such use and provide an effective simulation.
The collapsible lights, curtains, and projection screen and portable projector were assembled in a darkened storage room, with table and chairs locally sourced.
Three operators facilitated the event: one to greet, brief, and debrief guests on their experience, one to act as a fellow panelist to the guest and prompt them to provide feedback to the performer, and one to operate the simulation from backstage.
While further validation is required, this pilot suggested the goals of immersion, increased arousal, adaptability, portability, and cost-effectiveness to operate was achieved.
The benefits of IVEs and distributed simulation have already been seen in the domains of medical and music performance training, providing new avenues to promote experiential learning and provide a platform to conduct performance research in controlled environments.
The Evaluation Simulator provides the first opportunity to apply these benefits to the study and training of music performance evaluation.
As the adaptability of the software and surrounding social environment provides a variety of permutations, potential applications can be posited for its use in teaching and research.
Before addressing these possibilities, it is important to highlight a central limitation of the simulator at this early stage of development.
While it was created with the goal of stimulating heightened arousal, a full efficacy study will be required to demonstrate whether the simulator is truly capable of evoking similar evaluative and physiological responses to genuine evaluation settings, as was demonstrated with the Performance Simulator Williamon et al.
Such work, however, would be complicated by a lack of knowledge of the real-world analog. While much is known about musicians' responses to performance situations e.
A major line of research is required to achieve this aim, one in which the Evaluation Simulator could play a central role. A second limitation is the range of performances available for evaluation: while quality and response can be varied across the two performances for a total of 12 evaluation scenarios from the videos alone, they are nevertheless restricted to one performer on one instrument with two pieces of standard repertoire.
However, the existing conceptual and software framework could be expanded with relative ease, requiring only the collection of new video footage with different performers including variation in extra-musical features such as appearance, dress, and behavior , instruments, and repertoire while following the same script of entrance, performance, feedback, and exit footage.
Over time a library of performances could be assembled, and even shared between groups or institutions following a similar framework.
Care must be given in how best to employ the simulator in pedagogical settings. Through a review of studies in the medical domain, Issenberg et al.
They highlighted how 1 feedback should be given during the learning experience, 2 learners should practice their skills repetitively, 3 simulators should be integrated into the overall curriculum rather than used in extra-ordinary circumstances, 4 learners should practice with increasing levels of difficulty, 5 simulators should be used with a variety of learning strategies, 6 simulators should capture a variety of contexts, 7 learning should occur in a controlled environment, 8 learners should be provided with individualized experiences, 9 clear outcomes and benchmarks should be provided, and 10 the validity of simulators should be demonstrated.
In its current form the Evaluation Simulator fosters repetition 2 , a range of difficulty 4; i. The need to validate the simulator 10 has already been discussed, as has the possibility to expand the simulation to a wider variety of contexts beyond what is already possible through variations in the software interface, social, and environmental factors 6.
The use of varying strategies 5 while providing individualized learning 8 will be up to the instructor, who can vary the use of group size or use of instructor-vs-peer led settings.
For example, a lesson might have students enter alone, with the instructor as a panel leader, with a panel of peers, or with a panel of strangers, depending on the experience most needed by a particular student or group.
The use of benchmarks 9 and ongoing feedback 1 will also require creative thinking as to what constitutes an effective assessment, drawing on the criteria adapted from Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick to establish when feedback given is effective and informative and using peer- and video-stimulated approaches to provide feedback on the feedback.
Finally, adoption into the curriculum 3 will require support not only from students and teachers but programme leaders, facilities managers, and administration.
The use of distributed simulation to ensure the Evaluation Simulator is as cost-effective and adaptable as possible might help this adoption and lead to lasting change.
In its current state, the simulator offers numerous possibilities as a tool for research. By giving controlled, replicable stimuli for evaluation in a heightened setting, it provides a tool to examine the causal relation of environmental and social factors on evaluation procedures.
Variations could include computer screen only, full-sized projection, or with or without pre-evaluation waiting period, performer stage entrance, or intense lighting.
Social features could also be adapted, including informing the participant that the performer is being broadcast live via videoconferencing with possible real-world implications of the evaluation, or by providing additional information about the performer's experience and history.
Second stimulus induced spiking probabilities green dots and fitting curves green lines are shown in the top graph.
Therefore, the glutamatergic synaptic transmission from the AC potentiates the activities of BLA projection neurons.
Furthermore, in a subset of recordings, we examined the possibility that BLA projection neurons are recruited by AC activation.
Recordings were made in the cell-attached mode to avoid interference with the intracellular milieu. Following cell-attached recordings, whole-cell recordings with Neurobiotin loading were also performed to confirm projection neuron identity as described above.
For 7 out of 11 projection neurons, spikes detected as extracellular action currents were evoked by AC activation Figures 2E,F.
Taken together, these results suggest that AC afferents form monosynaptic and glutamatergic connections with BLA projection neurons and deliver a positive signal to those neurons.
For a control AC uncut , mice underwent the same surgical procedure but the blade did not penetrate deeply enough to cut the AC Figures 3C,D. Thus, the major difference between AC cut and uncut mice is the lesioning of the AC.
Figure 3. Surgical set-up for AC transection. A Photos of side and front views of a home-made narrow razor blade. The width and length of the blade are indicated.
B An example of a mouse undergoing surgery. A small narrow hole was made at the bregma for the blade to penetrate.
C Representative images of AC cut bottom and uncut top brains. Left, brain appearance after perfusion and post-fixation.
Blue arrows point to blade insertion sites. Middle, coronal view of brains around the bregma. Green arrows indicate lesions of AC and CC.
D HE staining of brain sections around the bregma. Black dashed lines indicate the path of the blade. The AC is also outlined by a white dashed line.
Scale bar, 1 mm. We then applied an optogenetic approach to investigate the role of the AC in amygdalar activity in vivo. The AAV-infected site was labeled as the ipsilateral site.
Figure 4. Optogenetic stimulation reveals contralateral connectivity of the basolateral amygdalae via the anterior commissure.
Injection sites are indicated at right panel. Two weeks later, blue light stimulation was performed at the region with AAV infection.
Two hours later, coronal sections of mouse brains were prepared for immunostaining. C-FOS signals are visualized in red. Each data-point indicates the result of an individual mouse.
To further evaluate the behavioral significance of interamygdalar connections through the AC, we subjected AC cut and uncut mice to two sets of behavioral paradigms at least 2 weeks after surgery.
The first set including open field, light-dark box, and elevated plus maze allowed us to analyze locomotor activity and anxiety. The second set comprising reciprocal social interaction, conditioned taste aversion and fear conditioning allowed us to evaluate social behaviors and amygdala-dependent associative memory.
In the first set of behavioral paradigms Figure 5A , AC cut mice had a longer travel distance and a higher rearing activity in an open field compared with AC uncut mice Figure 5B , suggesting locomotor hyperactivity caused by AC lesioning.
Apart from hyperactivity, AC cut mice did not exhibit any other abnormality in open field, light-dark box, or elevated plus maze.
Specifically, the tendency to stay in the center area of an open field, the light area of a light-dark box, and the open arm of an elevated plus maze was comparable between AC cut and uncut mice Figures 5B—D.
Together, these data suggest a role for the AC in controlling hyperactivity but not anxiety. Figure 5. Surgical lesioning of the AC results in locomotor hyperactivity.
A A flowchart of our behavioral paradigms. Both AC cut and AC uncut mice were used. B Open field. Total horizontal travel distance left , vertical rearing number middle , and the ratio of time spent at the central area to time spent at both central and corner regions.
C Light-dark box. The percentages of time spent in the light box are shown. D Elevated plus maze. The percentages of time spent in the closed arm, central area and open arm are shown.
B — D unpaired Student's t -test. In the second set of behavioral paradigms Figure 6A , we found that compared with AC uncut mice, AC cut mice spent more time approaching and interacting with the unfamiliar male mice in reciprocal social interaction Figure 6B.
Some AC cut mice behaved more aggressively than AC uncut mice and even tried to mount unfamiliar male mice within the 5 min assay period Movies S1 , S2.
These results suggest that AC transection results in altered social interaction. Figure 6. Surgical lesioning of the AC affects reciprocal social interaction and sucrose preference.
B Reciprocal social interaction. Total interaction times for test mice to approach, chase and interact with the unfamiliar mouse are shown.
C Sucrose preference. Comparison of the drinking volumes of water on day 0 D0 and sucrose solution on day 1 D1.
Data for the same mouse are linked by a line. Each data point indicates the result of an individual mouse. Several brain regions, including amygdalae, are required for conditioned taste aversion Lamprecht and Dudai, ; Lamprecht et al.
Since conditioned taste aversion relies on the display of a sucrose preference, loss of this sucrose preference made the conditioned taste aversion assay unsuitable for analyzing AC cut mice.
Accordingly, we omitted the subsequent two-bottle test element of conditioned taste aversion in our mice, which aims to evaluate amygdala-dependent aversion memory.
We then used auditory fear conditioning—a paradigm highly relevant to amygdalae but irrelevant to olfaction—to analyze AC cut mice Figure 7A.
This outcome suggests that AC cut mice behaved normally with regard to pain sensation and immediate fear response to foot shock. However, 1 day after training, AC cut mice had a lower freezing response when tested for fear memory Figure 7B , supporting that AC lesion impairs auditory fear memory, which is a behavior requiring functional amygdalae.
Figure 7. D-cycloserine mitigates fear memory deficits caused by AC transection. A Flowchart and schematic of auditory fear conditioning.
The experiments were carried out over four consecutive days D1—D4 as indicated. Both AC cut and AC uncut mice were subjected to the experiment.
Half of the mice were intraperitoneally injected with D-cycloserine 30 min before conditioning at D3.
C D-cycloserine treatment ameliorates the defects of AC cut mice in auditory fear memory. Basal, the freezing response during habituation; AS, after stimulation; Memory, the average freezing percentage in response to the first four tones at day 4.
We then wondered if D-cycloserine treatment could also improve the fear memory of AC cut mice. To assess this possibility, we systematically treated AC cut and uncut mice with D-cycloserine 30 min before training and found that both types of mice had similar freezing responses directly after foot shock stimulation Figure 7C , AS.
Importantly, the freezing responses of AC cut mice in the auditory fear memory test were also comparable to those of AC uncut mice in the presence of D-cycloserine Figure 7C , memory , suggesting that increased NMDAR activity ameliorates the behavioral defects caused by AC lesioning.
In this report, we employed various approaches including electrophysiological recording, optogenetic stimulation and behavioral analyses to investigate the role of the AC in the brain functions of mice.
The synaptic contacts are glutamatergic and exhibit facilitating short-term dynamics. Since the AC contains axonal projections derived from several different brain regions, it remains unclear if there is a specific input from a particular brain region that activates BLA neurons or if multiple regions exert similar actions to activate BLA neurons.
Nevertheless, our in vivo study using optogenetic stimulation demonstrates that activation at one side of BLA can increase neuronal activity as indicated by C-FOS expression of the other BLA.
Consistent with this point, our recent study also indicated that the two BLAs in the two hemispheres potentiate synaptic responses of each other Huang et al.
In addition to BLA, it will be interesting to further analyze the function of contralateral projections derived from other brain regions, which should help reveal how contralateral afferents via the AC control brain activity and function.
Brain regions above the AC, including the CC and septum, were also lesioned by transection. Thus, surgical control AC uncut mice that went through the same procedure were always included for comparison.
Since the AC remains intact in AC uncut mice and the brain regions above the AC are lesioned in both AC uncut and cut mice, our findings evidence the significance of the AC in the behaviors we examined.
However, given that locomotor activity, social interaction and fear memory are all complex behaviors involving multiple brain regions, lesioned brain areas above the AC may also contribute to abnormal behaviors, but we assert that AC lesioning is definitely crucial to those behavioral deficits.
More detailed circuit analyses using other approaches will help address if lesioning of the regions above the AC contribute to the functioning of the AC and BLA and if it can influence mouse behaviors.
ChR2-eYFP was originally designed for optogenetic stimulation to investigate neural circuits Boyden et al.
It can be distributed throughout entire neurons, including the soma and axons Gradinaru et al. In addition to the AC, other interhemispheric connectivity has also been investigated.
Somatosensory and motor cortices in the two brain hemispheres also innervate each other via the CC.
The transcallosal axons tend to activate inhibitory neurons and consequently deliver an inhibitory signal to contralateral cortices Meyer et al.
For the hippocampal commissure, commissural axons derived from hilar mossy cells also target interneurons to suppress granule cell spiking at the contralateral dentate gyrus Buzsaki and Eidelberg, ; Hsu et al.
Thus, in cortex and hippocampus, interhemispheric connectivity delivers an inhibitory signal between the two hemispheres, which differs from the potentiation effect of contralateral AC afferents on BLA.
Thus, the effects of different contralateral projections vary. Since the AC mediates contralateral connections between olfactory bulbs and amygdalae, we anticipated AC cut mice would exhibit abnormalities in olfaction and amygdala-dependent behaviors if interhemispheric connection is indeed critical for the functions of those two brain regions.
A previous study demonstrated that contralateral connectivity between two olfactoray bulbs is crucial for odor source localization Esquivelzeta Rabell et al.
Consistent with that finding, our AC cut mice did not exhibit a sucrose preference, most likely due to olfactory impairment.
With regard to social interaction, our current study shows that male AC cut mice became more active in approaching an unfamiliar mouse and even displayed mounting behavior toward other male mice.
Four possibilities may account for this difference and these four possibilities are not excluded from each other.
First, contralateral connectivity via both the anterior and posterior parts of the AC were completely disrupted by AC transection.
Second, the brain regions above the AC were also lesioned in our AC cut mice. Those regions may also modulate social behaviors, so lesioning of them may result in different behavioral outcomes.
Third, the AC connects olfactory bulbs, amygdalae as well as other ventral regions of cerebral cortex including the olfactory tubercles , the anterior piriform cortices, the perirhinal cortices, and the entorhinal cortices Horel and Stelzner, ; Jouandet and Hartenstein, Thus, the links between these cortical regions were also completely severed by AC transection.
These additional defects may have also influenced the outcome of our behavioral analyses. Finally, Tbr1 deficiency is a developmental defect, which is likely to be influenced by other compensatory effects.
In contrast, AC transection is an acute way of disconnecting all established connections via the AC in adult mice. Although the results of our AC transection experiments support the role of the AC in social interaction, echoing the involvement of disrupted interhemispheric connectivity in ASD, this acute effect actually differs from a developmental effect, perhaps due to different timing.
In addition to altering social interaction and olfaction, AC transection impaired auditory fear memory and we show that systemic administration of D-cycloserine, an NMDAR co-agonist, ameliorates the memory deficit caused by AC transection.
Therefore, enhancement of the ipsilateral signals by D-cycloserine seems sufficient to ameliorate the deficits caused by AC transection, suggesting that the function of contralateral afferents is to intensify ipsilateral signals.
This supposition is consistent with our recent finding that contralateral BLA stimulation promotes synaptic facilitation of BLA projection neurons Huang et al.
Our electrophysiological recordings also indicate that contralateral afferents via the AC form glutamatergic synapses with BLA projection neurons and activate them.
Together, these findings suggest that interhemispheric connectivity via the AC is critical to providing the positive signal mediated by glutamatergic synapses and thereby influencing the function of BLA in fear memory.
That finding suggests that AC deficits are an evolutionarily conserved feature of TBR1 deficiency in rodents and human and strengthens the evidence that defective AC development is important for ASD-related phenotypes.
Accordingly, other deficits caused by Tbr1 mutation may also be involved in ASD-related phenotypes. In the current report, we performed surgical lesioning of adult mice to show that disruption of the AC alters social interaction in rodents.
Our findings further evidence the involvement of connectivity between the two brain hemispheres via the AC for regulating social interaction.
Our study provides evidence that disruption of the AC alters BLA neuronal activity, locomotor activity, social interaction and fear memory in mice.
Both ex vivo recording and in vivo optogenetic stimulation suggest that contralateral afferents via the AC activate BLA neurons.
Behavioral assays also support that amygdalar function is impaired in AC-transected mice because auditory fear memory and social interaction are altered by AC transection.
Since the AC also links the two anterior piriform cortices, the perirhinal cortices and the entorhinal cortices in rodents, it will be intriguing to further dissect the impact of the AC on neuronal responses of these cortical regions and on behaviors related to these regions.
Such investigations will shed light on the role of interhemispheric connectivity in brain activity and function. All animal experiments were performed with the approval Protocol of the Academia Sinica Institutional Animal Care and Utilization Committee and in strict accordance with its guidelines.
Y-PH performed the project planning, experimental design, manuscript writing, and secured funding support.
All authors approve the final version for publication. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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